Workload and responsibility are high, with incidents that underline the need for alertness. In 2024, an A320 captain at a US airline described a day with three flights in which he flew a visual approach with autopilot, autothrust and flight director off and dealt with incorrect weight estimates from dispatch, which underlines the need for airmanship. In small-scale jet charter in the US, the captain's responsibility extends to every aspect of the flight, including hotel, transport, aircraft, passengers, weather and route. Although this offers freedom, according to one pilot in 2015 you are very much on your own when problems arise. An experienced pilot warned in 2016 about pressure at small charter companies to deviate from duty times, fly overweight, or depart without legal fuel to the alternate. An incident during line training on the 737-300 in 2011 illustrated the need for alertness, when a first officer accidentally switched off electric hydraulic pump B instead of engine anti-ice, which led to the loss of the captain's displays and autopilot due to a power surge. A former Ryanair pilot described in 2013 a fuel policy in which captains were ranked monthly on fuel performance in a 'fuel league'. With more than 300 kg of extra fuel, an explanation was required, and crews were approached about their fuel choice.36789

To become a captain, you go through a selection process with interviews, psychological tests and flight assessments, followed by a command course and line training, according to pilot accounts from 2004 to 2011. The route to captain includes an interview with the base captain, followed by command assessment flights over about six months. This is followed by a second interview at 3000 flying hours, an assessment simulator session and a technical interview, according to pilot accounts from 2008. The candidate's file is reviewed for non-technical skills and sickness absence. Assessments for experienced pilots emphasise operational experience, type-specific knowledge, crew resource management (CRM) in practice and motivation for the move. The basic aptitude tests are less intensive than for aspiring pilots. According to two pilots in 2011, the selection for Boeing 737 captain at Corendon Dutch Airlines consisted of an interview as the first round, followed by a psychological test. A first officer described in 2004 how the route to captain at his employer began with announced and unannounced assessments.2345

After the assessments comes a command course with ground school, simulator training and sim checks, followed by line training, a line check and a command check. The command course consisted of two days of ground school, three days of simulator training and three days of sim checks. Anyone who failed the command assessment flights could reapply after six months; anyone who failed the assessment sim or the course was set back twelve months and started again at step one. Candidates could also be removed from the process during line flying. A new captain described his command course in 2004 as a few days of ground school on procedures, simulator training in leadership and getting used to the left-hand seat, flights with the chief flight instructor and a final check ride with many 'why' questions. In his view, the initial command training in 2004 was demanding mainly on the theory side. The captain upgrade at NetJets Europe in 2007 started with a week of ground school in Lisbon, followed by four simulator sessions on the ERJ145: one for familiarisation and three to evaluate decision-making, procedures, knowledge and common sense.4510

The ATPL is the highest licence you can obtain and allows a pilot to act as captain on all types of flights, provided the right ratings are held. To become a captain you need an ATPL, which requires 1500 flying hours, including at least 500 hours in a multi-pilot environment; after reaching this experience, a frozen ATPL is converted into a full ATPL. Only after this conversion are you allowed to fly as captain. Specific ratings and a Class 1 medical are also required. The 500 multi-crew hours for an ATPL do not necessarily have to be flown as first officer; according to one pilot in 2025, they can also be flown as pilot in command (PIC) on a multi-crew aircraft outside Europe and converted afterwards. One company also asked for a number of hours as first officer before a pilot was allowed to fly single pilot. A Luxair vacancy from April 2008 asked for, among other things, a Class 1 medical and good physical fitness. In 2004, a US insurer required captains on a King Air 200 to be at least 21 years old. In 2011, the Advocate General of the Court of Justice of the EU advised that Directive 2000/78/EC precludes the automatic termination of the employment of pilots of a commercial airline on reaching the age of 60. Becoming a pilot later in life, for example in your late twenties or between 30 and 35, is still realistic, as airlines regularly hire people in their thirties. An upgrade to captain usually follows at a later age when seniority starts building later.12345

In 2009, Turkish Airlines required captains to have, among other things, Turkish citizenship, an age between 30 and 65, 7,000 hours total, at least 3,000 hours of airline experience on aircraft above 27 tonnes and 2,000 hours as captain. One pilot familiar with the Turkish market estimated in 2010 that almost half of the captains in Turkey were former military pilots and a quarter were foreign. In 2015 Turkish Airlines was looking for direct-entry captains for the 737, with progression to widebody, and expected enough vacancies over the next two years due to the arrival of 12 new 777s. In 2008, a recruitment agency was looking for captains for a European Embraer 145 operator with 3000 hours total and 500 hours PIC on type, with a JAA licence and a valid type rating. In March 2012, AIS Airlines was looking for unemployed ATPL holders with turboprop experience for a captain position. In 2005, Ryanair's requirements for captains were 3500 hours total, 2000 hours on aircraft above 20,000 kg, 1000 hours as pilot in command on such aircraft and 500 hours PIC on a heavy jet such as the F100 or BAe 146. In 2005, Ryanair recruited US Boeing 737 captains with an FAA licence through Brookfield, with simulator assessments in Miami. The FAA licence was validated first, and a JAR licence had to be obtained within 6 to 9 months, according to pilot accounts from 2005. Captains with other heavy jet experience were offered a self-funded type rating. An easyJet type rating instructor reported in 2008 that at easyJet you could move to the left-hand seat with relatively little experience, from about 3000 to 4000 hours total. For the easyJet command route in 2008, a first officer needed 2500 hours of factored experience, 500 hours on type and two consecutive above-average checks, which meant at least one year of service.411121314

The costs of becoming a captain can vary, depending on the airline and whether a type rating is needed, according to pilots in 2015. In 2014, a type rating at SunExpress in Turkey cost about EUR 24,000. Around 2012, you could buy an A320 captain position at Eagle Jet for USD 32,500, or for about USD 10,000 less on the 737. According to a quote from the BALPA magazine 'The Log' in 2009, command upgrades at Ryanair would be charged an application fee of GBP 4,500. In 2009, Ryanair pilots paid for their own uniform, food, travel to training and their medical. During ground school and simulator training, a new captain at Ryanair in 2009 received no sector pay and paid for their own travel and hotel.6121315

A Ryanair vacancy from 2005 stated that captains completed a B737-800 type rating at a CAE training centre, which after assessment was pre-financed with a five-year bond, with a permanent contract, fixed roster and fixed base. In 2015, easyJet recruited non-type-rated captains who had to pay for their type rating themselves. In 2015, Turkish Airlines required captains who were not type-rated on its aircraft types to pay for the type rating themselves. According to one pilot in 2009, a pilot at a German company still had to sign a training bond when upgrading to captain, despite having previously bought a 500-hour package. Around 2004, it was a trend among airlines, including Cargolux, BA and Virgin Atlantic, to hire only type-rated pilots or to make pilots pay for the rating. In that period, Ryanair was looking for turboprop captains who were converted to 737 captain at their own expense, according to pilots in 2004.561214

In 2009, a command upgrade at Ryanair only paid off financially after about two years, partly because a new captain earned 80% of the captain salary in the first year. In 2014, a captain at Turkish carriers earned about EUR 2,500 or more per month above a first officer, who earned EUR 4,200 to 5,000 net. In 2003, the starting salary of a captain at Air Exel was about double that of a first officer, who earned EUR 1,644 gross per month after training.61516

Soft-skills training, including modules on personality analysis and communication, can help pilots prepare for command. Experienced pilots undergo assessments when promoted from first officer to captain, when moving to another airline, for a type rating conversion and during periodic recurrent checks. According to an experienced pilot, as an experienced first officer you should already master crew cooperation and the operational and commercial aspects; command training is mainly there to make you feel at home in the role and with the legal responsibility. One pilot's ground rule is to let a First Officer fly, but never so far that the First Officer can no longer recover the situation. One pilot advised being honest about your own readiness, even when you meet the hours requirement, rather than only studying for the command assessment. One captain's interview tip was never to say that carrying extra fuel is not a problem, because the safety of passengers and crew comes first, and fuel efficiency and cost control second. An easyJet captain in 2008 found the command assessment flights the most useful: not the major failures but keeping the big picture during small problems such as slots, technical issues, weather and fuel planning showed whether someone was ready for the left-hand seat. An easyJet instructor warned in 2008 that captaincy depends more on experience than on knowledge.4814

The next step from first officer to captain depends on seniority, fleet plans and the market. In the average KLM career, skipping intermediate steps is possible, with the pace depending on factors such as bond period, seniority, bids, fleet growth, retirements and types being phased out. At Turkish Airlines a wave of retirements started around 2015, with expats and older captains expected to leave within seven years if the retirement age stayed at 63. According to a pilot in 2023, one pilot in the US progressed in about 9 years from flight instructor, via the Citation and the Boeing 737 and 747, to captain on the 777. At a US Citation charter operator, a former flight instructor was upgraded to captain on the CJ2 in 2014 after about a year and 420 hours on type. According to five easyJet pilots in 2005, first officers who passed their command assessment had to wait about eight months for a command course because of the large number of people in the command pool.1012141718

In 2005, easyJet said it would only hire external captains on the Airbus fleet if a need at a base could not be filled through internal promotions, and expected large numbers of internal commands on both fleets. According to an easyJet pilot, there was no shortage of captains. At KLM Cityhopper in 2008 you could become captain after about 1 year on the Fokker 50. A Transavia first officer with about 8 years of service had no prospect of a command in 2013 and expected possibly another 8 years of waiting, partly due to slow progression and unfilled retirements. A few left for Emirates at the time. At Transavia, management decided in February 2017 to close the Munich base as of 1 November 2017, which affected staff. After the closure, the first officers joined Transavia Netherlands, while captains were given a choice. For the conversion to captain on the B737NG, one pilot spent one and a half months on the ground, not flying, in 2014, after which he ended the year with a proficiency check. At the start of 2005, Transavia employed more than 400 pilots, of whom 220 were captains.49141519

After an integrated or modular course you hold a frozen ATPL, which means the theory is complete but the flight hours are still missing. Seniority is a decisive factor in upgrade chances; moving to another airline usually means starting again at the bottom of the seniority list. In 2022, a first officer at a US cargo airline upgraded to captain on the Boeing 777 with the same employer after almost 4,000 hours on five 747 variants, partly to build a current type rating and PIC time. Moving quickly to the left-hand seat at Corendon Dutch Airlines was possible until 2019, but because of many experienced first officers and a surplus of captains, that was no longer a certainty for the future. At Ryanair in 2012, the policy was to upgrade first officers to captain from about 3,000 hours total, provided they passed the upgrade process with sim check and line training. According to an easyJet pilot in 2012, pilots with just 3,000 hours total were moved to the left-hand seat, but that year it no longer went so quickly: one easyJet pilot took about 5.5 years and had about 4,500 hours before becoming captain.213171820

A former Ryanair captain flew on average about 850 block hours a year between 2005 and 2008, spread over about 135 working days and 439 sectors averaging almost 2 hours. This gives a picture of the workload at the airline in that period. An A380 captain based in Dubai logged almost 973 hours in 2018, spread over 113 sectors averaging 8 hours 40 minutes. A 737 captain flew 847 hours as PIC in 2018.620

Working with the first officer is a recurring theme, with captains looking for a balance between letting the first officer fly and intervening in time when there are deviations. A 777 captain (2024) described his thinking as pilot monitoring: "have I seen it, has the other pilot seen it, is it already being corrected, and if not, why not, and is the deviation increasing?". On assertiveness in the cockpit, a captain (2024) said: "High on the descent path at 10,000 feet calls for a suggestion, well below the glide path at 200 feet calls for a direct correction". A widebody captain (2024) gets little enjoyment from his work because of the aircraft type, the routes and the company culture on his fleet, although he still describes flying itself as "really great". According to an experienced captain (2024), real interpersonal problems between captain and first officer are extremely rare; he could count the truly unpleasant flights on one hand. A 777 captain (2024) stressed that the first officer is not always the least experienced pilot; his first officer had previously flown as a captain on the A320 for years. A 777 captain (2024) flies rotations of up to 17 hours and expects to see single-pilot operations in the remaining 12 years of his career.8

Students value the fast progression to captain at some airlines, but complain about working conditions and high staff turnover. Pilot accounts point to a fast upgrade to captain, which does not always mean everyone is ready for it. A Condor pilot described Condor in 2009 as an enjoyable employer with fast progression to captain. According to a Ryanair captain in 2008, experienced captains from other airlines move to Ryanair mainly for the roster and time off. A NetJets Europe pilot reported in 2007 that the work is very varied and the roster fixed. At Corendon Dutch Airlines the atmosphere was good in 2013, according to one pilot, and many former KLM and Martinair captains flew there. One source reported in 2008 that Denim Air was looking for experienced captains and offered a friendly atmosphere with varied operations on the F50 and Dash 8. According to a Ryanair pilot in 2012, it is hard to get your preferred base and after your upgrade to captain you have to leave your current base. A former Ryanair pilot warned in 2012 about the high staff turnover and the fast, sometimes too fast, upgrade of first officers to captain.46910

After captain, several follow-on routes are possible, depending on the airline and personal choices, according to pilots in 2007 to 2022. Opportunities for progression vary widely by airline and period, according to pilots in 2017 to 2019. The average KLM career includes steps such as long-haul second officer or first officer at Cityhopper, first officer on the European fleet, captain at Cityhopper or long-haul first officer, and finally captain on the European fleet or long-haul captain. At KLM in 2007 you could progress from second officer to captain on the Fokker 50 or even the Fokker 70, provided you held an ATPL, were free of your bond and had enough seniority, after which you first flew 6 months as first officer before the command upgrade began. The indicative progression from second officer via first officer on the European fleet to Embraer captain was about 9.5 years, to long-haul first officer 13 years, to 737 captain 14 years and to long-haul captain 20 years, according to pilots in 2017. For experienced captains elsewhere, joining KLM is a big step back financially and professionally.10182021

The captain sits in the left-hand seat of the cockpit and has final responsibility for the flight, including critical decisions such as go/no-go. The captain is responsible for the safety of crew, passengers and cargo, and may deviate from rules and procedures in emergencies in the interest of safety. Final responsibility for a decision, such as returning, lies with the captain, even if the airline gives the go-ahead and the choice costs a lot of money. One experienced captain describes every flight as a risk management exercise, with conservative planning that takes the worst case into account. In 2008, the captain's decision to reject the take-off above V1, combined with underinflated tyres, was identified as the cause of a Learjet 60 accident. In a Kalitta 747 accident in 2008, in which a bird struck an engine after V1, the crew brought the engines to idle and braked, which led to the aircraft running off the runway. At British Airways a captain wears four stripes. On the 737, the Flight Deck Door Lock Selector is spring-loaded to AUTO and must be pushed in to turn it to UNLKD, meaning you turn and hold it so that a colleague outside can open the door.34111522